![]() ![]() The larvae feed on algae, diatoms, cyanobacteria, protists, and tiny invertebrates in water ( Kupferberg, 1997 Pryor, 2003 Ruibal & Laufer, 2012). Eggs are laid in still water such as ponds ( Govindarajulu, Price & Anholt, 2006). The American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw) (formerly called Rana catesbeiana Shaw Lowe et al., 2000) (Anura: Ranidae) has been intentionally introduced for various purposes to many countries and regions (western North America, South America, East and Southeast Asia, and Western Europe) from eastern North America ( Ficetola et al., 2007 Ficetola, Thuiller & Miaud, 2007 Giovanelli, Haddad & Alexandrino, 2008 Bissattini & Vignoli, 2017 Groffen et al., 2019 Johovic et al., 2020). ![]() Investigating the effectiveness of the pre-existing defenses of native species against invasive predators would enable a better understanding of how to mitigate the impacts of invasive predators on native species. ![]() However, pre-existing defenses have received less attention than the evolution of anti-predator defenses in terms of native species’ tolerance to invasive predators ( Strauss, Lau & Carroll, 2006). Pre-existing antipredator defenses can play an important role in repelling invasive predators that have similar ecological traits to native predators ( Carthey & Banks, 2014 Melotto et al., 2021). However, some native species have survived the predation pressures of invasive species by using pre-existing antipredator strategies ( Davis, Epp & Gabor, 2012 Carthey & Banks, 2014) or evolving defenses against invasive predators ( Vermeij, 1982 Strauss, Lau & Carroll, 2006). Because native prey species do not share a history with invasive predators ( Fritts & Rodda, 1998 Strauss, Lau & Carroll, 2006 Carthey & Banks, 2014), many native species suffer predation by invasive species ( Goldschmidt, Witte & Wanink, 1993 Doherty et al., 2016 Sugiura, 2016). In particular, invasive predators affect native communities and ecosystems through cascading effects ( Goldschmidt, Witte & Wanink, 1993 O’Dowd, Green & Lake, 2003 Kenis et al., 2009 David et al., 2017 Rogers et al., 2017 McGruddy et al., 2021). Invasive non-native species negatively impact native biota ( Doherty et al., 2016 Sugiura, 2016 David et al., 2017). occipitalis jessoensis has an existing defense mechanism strong enough to repel the invasive predators. Although invasive bullfrogs have reportedly impacted native insect species, P. occipitalis jessoensis against invasive bullfrogs. These results indicate that bombing is important for the successful defense of P. When treated beetles that were unable to discharge hot chemicals were provided, 77.8% of bullfrogs successfully swallowed and digested the treated beetles. All of the beetles collected from non-bullfrog-invaded sites could deter bullfrogs, suggesting that the pre-existing defenses of bombardier beetles played an essential role in repelling bullfrogs. Only 3.7% successfully swallowed and digested the beetle. Contrary to previous gut content results, almost all the bullfrogs (96.3%) rejected bombardier beetles before swallowing them 88.9% rejected the beetles after being bombed, and 7.4% stopped attacking the beetles before being bombed. occipitalis jessoensis adults under laboratory conditions. To test the effectiveness of the bombing defense against bullfrogs, we investigated the behavioral responses of L. occipitalis jessoensis under field conditions in Japan however, the effectiveness of the bombing defense against invasive bullfrogs is unclear. catesbeianus attacks the native bombardier beetle P. These records suggest that the invasive bullfrog L. However, adults of a native bombardier beetle Pheropsophus ( Stenaptinus) occipitalis jessoensis have been reportedly found in the gut contents of the introduced bullfrog L. This “bombing” can successfully repel predators. Bombardier beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Brachininae: Brachinini) discharge chemicals at a temperature of approximately 100 ☌ from the tip of the abdomen when they are attacked by predators. The American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus (Anura: Ranidae) has been intentionally introduced to many countries and regions, and has impacted native animals through direct predation. Invasive non-native predators negatively affect native species however, some native species can survive the predation pressures of invasive species by using pre-existing antipredator strategies or evolving defenses against invasive predators. ![]()
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